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14
README.md
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@@ -14,7 +14,7 @@ src="https://img.shields.io/badge/license-MIT-blue.svg"></a>
<br>
The goal of this repository is to document known and unknown methods of
The goal of this book is to document known and unknown methods of
doing various tasks using only built-in `bash` features. Using the snippets
from this bible can help to remove unneeded dependencies from your scripts
and in most cases make them that little bit faster. I came across these
@@ -45,6 +45,7 @@ scripts and not full blown utilities.
<!-- vim-markdown-toc GFM -->
* [Introduction](#introduction)
* [Strings](#strings)
* [Trim leading and trailing white-space from string](#trim-leading-and-trailing-white-space-from-string)
* [Trim all white-space from string and truncate spaces](#trim-all-white-space-from-string-and-truncate-spaces)
@@ -156,6 +157,17 @@ scripts and not full blown utilities.
<br>
<!-- CHAPTER START -->
# Introduction
A collection of pure `bash` alternatives to external processes and programs. The `bash` scripting language is more powerful than people realise and you can accomplish most tasks without the need or dependency of external programs.
Calling an external process in `bash` is expensive and excessive use will cause a noticeable slowdown. By sticking to built-in methods (*where possible*) your scripts and programs will be faster, require less dependencies and you'll gain a better understanding of the language itself.
The contents of this book provide a reference for solving the problems encountered when writing programs and scripts in `bash`. The examples are in function format showcasing how to incorporate these solutions into your code.
<!-- CHAPTER END -->
<!-- CHAPTER START -->
# Strings

1
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chapter14.txt
chapter15.txt
chapter16.txt
chapter17.txt

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@@ -1,376 +1,10 @@
# Strings
# Introduction
## Trim leading and trailing white-space from string
A collection of pure `bash` alternatives to external processes and programs. The `bash` scripting language is more powerful than people realise and you can accomplish most tasks without the need or dependency of external programs.
This is an alternative to `sed`, `awk`, `perl` and other tools. The
function below works by finding all leading and trailing white-space and
removing it from the start and end of the string. The `:` built-in is used in place of a temporary variable.
Calling an external process in `bash` is expensive and excessive use will cause a noticeable slowdown. By sticking to built-in methods (*where possible*) your scripts and programs will be faster, require less dependencies and you'll gain a better understanding of the language itself.
**Example Function:**
```sh
trim_string() {
# Usage: trim_string " example string "
: "${1#"${1%%[![:space:]]*}"}"
: "${_%"${_##*[![:space:]]}"}"
printf '%s\n' "$_"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ trim_string " Hello, World "
Hello, World
$ name=" John Black "
$ trim_string "$name"
John Black
```
## Trim all white-space from string and truncate spaces
This is an alternative to `sed`, `awk`, `perl` and other tools. The
function below works by abusing word splitting to create a new string
without leading/trailing white-space and with truncated spaces.
**Example Function:**
```sh
# shellcheck disable=SC2086,SC2048
trim_all() {
# Usage: trim_all " example string "
set -f
set -- $*
printf '%s\n' "$*"
set +f
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ trim_all " Hello, World "
Hello, World
$ name=" John Black is my name. "
$ trim_all "$name"
John Black is my name.
```
## Use regex on a string
We can use the result of `bash`'s regex matching to replace `sed` for a
large number of use-cases.
**CAVEAT**: This is one of the few platform dependant `bash` features.
`bash` will use whatever regex engine is installed on the user's system.
Stick to POSIX regex features if aiming for compatibility.
**CAVEAT**: This example only prints the first matching group. When using
multiple capture groups some modification is needed.
**Example Function:**
```sh
regex() {
# Usage: regex "string" "regex"
[[ $1 =~ $2 ]] && printf '%s\n' "${BASH_REMATCH[1]}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ # Trim leading white-space.
$ regex ' hello' '^\s*(.*)'
hello
$ # Validate a hex color.
$ regex "#FFFFFF" '^(#?([a-fA-F0-9]{6}|[a-fA-F0-9]{3}))$'
#FFFFFF
$ # Validate a hex color (invalid).
$ regex "red" '^(#?([a-fA-F0-9]{6}|[a-fA-F0-9]{3}))$'
# no output (invalid)
```
**Example Usage in script:**
```shell
is_hex_color() {
if [[ "$1" =~ ^(#?([a-fA-F0-9]{6}|[a-fA-F0-9]{3}))$ ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "${BASH_REMATCH[1]}"
else
printf '%s\n' "error: $1 is an invalid color."
return 1
fi
}
read -r color
is_hex_color "$color" || color="#FFFFFF"
# Do stuff.
```
## Split a string on a delimiter
This is an alternative to `cut`, `awk` and other tools.
**Example Function:**
```sh
split() {
# Usage: split "string" "delimiter"
IFS=$'\n' read -d "" -ra arr <<< "${1//$2/$'\n'}"
printf '%s\n' "${arr[@]}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ split "apples,oranges,pears,grapes" ","
apples
oranges
pears
grapes
$ split "1, 2, 3, 4, 5" ", "
1
2
3
4
5
# Multi char delimiters work too!
$ split "hello---world---my---name---is---john" "---"
hello
world
my
name
is
john
```
## Change a string to lowercase
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
**Example Function:**
```sh
lower() {
# Usage: lower "string"
printf '%s\n' "${1,,}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ lower "HELLO"
hello
$ lower "HeLlO"
hello
$ lower "hello"
hello
```
## Change a string to uppercase
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
**Example Function:**
```sh
upper() {
# Usage: upper "string"
printf '%s\n' "${1^^}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ upper "hello"
HELLO
$ upper "HeLlO"
HELLO
$ upper "HELLO"
HELLO
```
## Trim quotes from a string
**Example Function:**
```sh
trim_quotes() {
# Usage: trim_quotes "string"
: "${1//\'}"
printf '%s\n' "${_//\"}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ var="'Hello', \"World\""
$ trim_quotes "$var"
Hello, World
```
## Strip all instances of pattern from string
**Example Function:**
```sh
strip_all() {
# Usage: strip_all "string" "pattern"
printf '%s\n' "${1//$2}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ strip_all "The Quick Brown Fox" "[aeiou]"
Th Qck Brwn Fx
$ strip_all "The Quick Brown Fox" "[[:space:]]"
TheQuickBrownFox
$ strip_all "The Quick Brown Fox" "Quick "
The Brown Fox
```
## Strip first occurrence of pattern from string
**Example Function:**
```sh
strip() {
# Usage: strip "string" "pattern"
printf '%s\n' "${1/$2}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ strip "The Quick Brown Fox" "[aeiou]"
Th Quick Brown Fox
$ strip "The Quick Brown Fox" "[[:space:]]"
TheQuick Brown Fox
```
## Strip pattern from start of string
**Example Function:**
```sh
lstrip() {
# Usage: lstrip "string" "pattern"
printf '%s\n' "${1##$2}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ lstrip "The Quick Brown Fox" "The "
Quick Brown Fox
```
## Strip pattern from end of string
**Example Function:**
```sh
rstrip() {
# Usage: rstrip "string" "pattern"
printf '%s\n' "${1%%$2}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ rstrip "The Quick Brown Fox" " Fox"
The Quick Brown
```
## Check if string contains a sub-string
**Using a test:**
```shell
if [[ "$var" == *sub_string* ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "sub_string is in var."
fi
# Inverse (substring not in string).
if [[ "$var" != *sub_string* ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "sub_string is not in var."
fi
# This works for arrays too!
if [[ "${arr[*]}" == *sub_string* ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "sub_string is in array."
fi
```
**Using a case statement:**
```shell
case "$var" in
*sub_string*)
# Do stuff
;;
*sub_string2*)
# Do more stuff
;;
*)
# Else
;;
esac
```
## Check if string starts with sub-string
```shell
if [[ "$var" == sub_string* ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "var starts with sub_string."
fi
# Inverse (var doesn't start with sub_string).
if [[ "$var" != sub_string* ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "var does not start with sub_string."
fi
```
## Check if string ends with sub-string
```shell
if [[ "$var" == *sub_string ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "var ends with sub_string."
fi
# Inverse (var doesn't start with sub_string).
if [[ "$var" != *sub_string ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "var does not end with sub_string."
fi
```
The contents of this book provide a reference for solving the problems encountered when writing programs and scripts in `bash`. The examples are in function format showcasing how to incorporate these solutions into your code.
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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@@ -1,130 +1,376 @@
# Arrays
# Strings
## Reverse an array
## Trim leading and trailing white-space from string
Enabling `extdebug` allows access to the `BASH_ARGV` array which stores
the current function’s arguments in reverse.
This is an alternative to `sed`, `awk`, `perl` and other tools. The
function below works by finding all leading and trailing white-space and
removing it from the start and end of the string. The `:` built-in is used in place of a temporary variable.
**Example Function:**
```sh
reverse_array() {
# Usage: reverse_array "array"
shopt -s extdebug
f()(printf '%s\n' "${BASH_ARGV[@]}"); f "$@"
shopt -u extdebug
trim_string() {
# Usage: trim_string " example string "
: "${1#"${1%%[![:space:]]*}"}"
: "${_%"${_##*[![:space:]]}"}"
printf '%s\n' "$_"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ reverse_array 1 2 3 4 5
5
4
3
2
1
$ trim_string " Hello, World "
Hello, World
$ arr=(red blue green)
$ reverse_array "${arr[@]}"
green
blue
red
$ name=" John Black "
$ trim_string "$name"
John Black
```
## Remove duplicate array elements
Create a temporary associative array. When setting associative array
values and a duplicate assignment occurs, bash overwrites the key. This
allows us to effectively remove array duplicates.
## Trim all white-space from string and truncate spaces
This is an alternative to `sed`, `awk`, `perl` and other tools. The
function below works by abusing word splitting to create a new string
without leading/trailing white-space and with truncated spaces.
**Example Function:**
```sh
# shellcheck disable=SC2086,SC2048
trim_all() {
# Usage: trim_all " example string "
set -f
set -- $*
printf '%s\n' "$*"
set +f
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ trim_all " Hello, World "
Hello, World
$ name=" John Black is my name. "
$ trim_all "$name"
John Black is my name.
```
## Use regex on a string
We can use the result of `bash`'s regex matching to replace `sed` for a
large number of use-cases.
**CAVEAT**: This is one of the few platform dependant `bash` features.
`bash` will use whatever regex engine is installed on the user's system.
Stick to POSIX regex features if aiming for compatibility.
**CAVEAT**: This example only prints the first matching group. When using
multiple capture groups some modification is needed.
**Example Function:**
```sh
regex() {
# Usage: regex "string" "regex"
[[ $1 =~ $2 ]] && printf '%s\n' "${BASH_REMATCH[1]}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ # Trim leading white-space.
$ regex ' hello' '^\s*(.*)'
hello
$ # Validate a hex color.
$ regex "#FFFFFF" '^(#?([a-fA-F0-9]{6}|[a-fA-F0-9]{3}))$'
#FFFFFF
$ # Validate a hex color (invalid).
$ regex "red" '^(#?([a-fA-F0-9]{6}|[a-fA-F0-9]{3}))$'
# no output (invalid)
```
**Example Usage in script:**
```shell
is_hex_color() {
if [[ "$1" =~ ^(#?([a-fA-F0-9]{6}|[a-fA-F0-9]{3}))$ ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "${BASH_REMATCH[1]}"
else
printf '%s\n' "error: $1 is an invalid color."
return 1
fi
}
read -r color
is_hex_color "$color" || color="#FFFFFF"
# Do stuff.
```
## Split a string on a delimiter
This is an alternative to `cut`, `awk` and other tools.
**Example Function:**
```sh
split() {
# Usage: split "string" "delimiter"
IFS=$'\n' read -d "" -ra arr <<< "${1//$2/$'\n'}"
printf '%s\n' "${arr[@]}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ split "apples,oranges,pears,grapes" ","
apples
oranges
pears
grapes
$ split "1, 2, 3, 4, 5" ", "
1
2
3
4
5
# Multi char delimiters work too!
$ split "hello---world---my---name---is---john" "---"
hello
world
my
name
is
john
```
## Change a string to lowercase
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
**Example Function:**
```sh
remove_array_dups() {
# Usage: remove_array_dups "array"
declare -A tmp_array
for i in "$@"; do
[[ "$i" ]] && IFS=" " tmp_array["${i:- }"]=1
done
printf '%s\n' "${!tmp_array[@]}"
lower() {
# Usage: lower "string"
printf '%s\n' "${1,,}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ remove_array_dups 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5
1
2
3
4
5
$ lower "HELLO"
hello
$ arr=(red red green blue blue)
$ remove_array_dups "${arr[@]}"
red
green
blue
$ lower "HeLlO"
hello
$ lower "hello"
hello
```
## Random array element
## Change a string to uppercase
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
**Example Function:**
```sh
random_array_element() {
# Usage: random_array_element "array"
local arr=("$@")
printf '%s\n' "${arr[RANDOM % $#]}"
upper() {
# Usage: upper "string"
printf '%s\n' "${1^^}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ array=(red green blue yellow brown)
$ random_array_element "${array[@]}"
yellow
$ upper "hello"
HELLO
# You can also just pass multiple arguments.
$ random_array_element 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
$ upper "HeLlO"
HELLO
$ upper "HELLO"
HELLO
```
## Cycle through an array
## Trim quotes from a string
Each time the `printf` is called, the next array element is printed. When
the print hits the last array element it starts from the first element
again.
**Example Function:**
```sh
arr=(a b c d)
cycle() {
printf '%s ' "${arr[${i:=0}]}"
((i=i>=${#arr[@]}-1?0:++i))
trim_quotes() {
# Usage: trim_quotes "string"
: "${1//\'}"
printf '%s\n' "${_//\"}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
## Toggle between two values
```shell
$ var="'Hello', \"World\""
$ trim_quotes "$var"
Hello, World
```
This works the same as above, this is just a different use case.
## Strip all instances of pattern from string
**Example Function:**
```sh
arr=(true false)
cycle() {
printf '%s ' "${arr[${i:=0}]}"
((i=i>=${#arr[@]}-1?0:++i))
strip_all() {
# Usage: strip_all "string" "pattern"
printf '%s\n' "${1//$2}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ strip_all "The Quick Brown Fox" "[aeiou]"
Th Qck Brwn Fx
$ strip_all "The Quick Brown Fox" "[[:space:]]"
TheQuickBrownFox
$ strip_all "The Quick Brown Fox" "Quick "
The Brown Fox
```
## Strip first occurrence of pattern from string
**Example Function:**
```sh
strip() {
# Usage: strip "string" "pattern"
printf '%s\n' "${1/$2}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ strip "The Quick Brown Fox" "[aeiou]"
Th Quick Brown Fox
$ strip "The Quick Brown Fox" "[[:space:]]"
TheQuick Brown Fox
```
## Strip pattern from start of string
**Example Function:**
```sh
lstrip() {
# Usage: lstrip "string" "pattern"
printf '%s\n' "${1##$2}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ lstrip "The Quick Brown Fox" "The "
Quick Brown Fox
```
## Strip pattern from end of string
**Example Function:**
```sh
rstrip() {
# Usage: rstrip "string" "pattern"
printf '%s\n' "${1%%$2}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ rstrip "The Quick Brown Fox" " Fox"
The Quick Brown
```
## Check if string contains a sub-string
**Using a test:**
```shell
if [[ "$var" == *sub_string* ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "sub_string is in var."
fi
# Inverse (substring not in string).
if [[ "$var" != *sub_string* ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "sub_string is not in var."
fi
# This works for arrays too!
if [[ "${arr[*]}" == *sub_string* ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "sub_string is in array."
fi
```
**Using a case statement:**
```shell
case "$var" in
*sub_string*)
# Do stuff
;;
*sub_string2*)
# Do more stuff
;;
*)
# Else
;;
esac
```
## Check if string starts with sub-string
```shell
if [[ "$var" == sub_string* ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "var starts with sub_string."
fi
# Inverse (var doesn't start with sub_string).
if [[ "$var" != sub_string* ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "var does not start with sub_string."
fi
```
## Check if string ends with sub-string
```shell
if [[ "$var" == *sub_string ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "var ends with sub_string."
fi
# Inverse (var doesn't start with sub_string).
if [[ "$var" != *sub_string ]]; then
printf '%s\n' "var does not end with sub_string."
fi
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# Traps
# Arithmetic
Traps allow you to execute code on various signals. In `pxltrm` I'm using traps to redraw the user interface on window resize. Another use case is cleaning up temporary files on script exit.
These `trap` lines should be added near the start of your script so any early errors are also caught.
**NOTE:** For a full list of signals, see `trap -l`.
## Do something on script exit
## Simpler syntax to set variables
```shell
# Clear screen on script exit.
trap 'printf \\e[2J\\e[H\\e[m' EXIT
# Simple math
((var=1+2))
# Decrement/Increment variable
((var++))
((var--))
((var+=1))
((var-=1))
# Using variables
((var=var2*arr[2]))
```
## Ignore terminal interrupt (CTRL+C, SIGINT)
## Ternary tests
```shell
trap '' INT
```
## React to window resize.
```shell
# Call a function on window resize.
trap 'code_here' SIGWINCH
```
## Do something before every command.
```shell
trap 'code_here' DEBUG
```
## Do something when a shell function or a sourced file finishes executing
```shell
trap 'code_here' RETURN
# Set the value of var to var2 if var2 is greater than var.
# var: variable to set.
# var2>var: Condition to test.
# ?var2: If the test succeeds.
# :var: If the test fails.
((var=var2>var?var2:var))
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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@@ -1,13 +1,42 @@
# Performance
# Traps
## Disable Unicode
Traps allow you to execute code on various signals. In `pxltrm` I'm using traps to redraw the user interface on window resize. Another use case is cleaning up temporary files on script exit.
If your script doesn't require unicode, you can disable it for a speed boost. Results may vary but I've seen an improvement in Neofetch and some other smaller programs.
These `trap` lines should be added near the start of your script so any early errors are also caught.
**NOTE:** For a full list of signals, see `trap -l`.
## Do something on script exit
```shell
# Disable unicode.
LC_ALL=C
LANG=C
# Clear screen on script exit.
trap 'printf \\e[2J\\e[H\\e[m' EXIT
```
## Ignore terminal interrupt (CTRL+C, SIGINT)
```shell
trap '' INT
```
## React to window resize.
```shell
# Call a function on window resize.
trap 'code_here' SIGWINCH
```
## Do something before every command.
```shell
trap 'code_here' DEBUG
```
## Do something when a shell function or a sourced file finishes executing
```shell
trap 'code_here' RETURN
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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@@ -1,51 +1,13 @@
# Obsolete Syntax
# Performance
## Shebang
## Disable Unicode
Use `#!/usr/bin/env bash` instead of `#!/bin/bash`.
- The former searches the user's `PATH` to find the `bash` binary.
- The latter assumes it is always installed to `/bin/` which can cause issues.
If your script doesn't require unicode, you can disable it for a speed boost. Results may vary but I've seen an improvement in Neofetch and some other smaller programs.
```shell
# Right:
#!/usr/bin/env bash
# Wrong:
#!/bin/bash
```
## Command Substitution
Use `$()` instead of `` ` ` ``.
```shell
# Right.
var="$(command)"
# Wrong.
var=`command`
# $() can easily be nested whereas `` cannot.
var="$(command "$(command)")"
```
## Function Declaration
Don't use the `function` keyword, it reduces compatibility with older versions of `bash`.
```shell
# Right.
do_something() {
# ...
}
# Wrong.
function do_something() {
# ...
}
# Disable unicode.
LC_ALL=C
LANG=C
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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@@ -1,99 +1,51 @@
# Internal Variables
# Obsolete Syntax
**NOTE**: This list does not include every internal variable (*You can
help by adding a missing entry!*).
## Shebang
For a complete list, see:
http://tldp.org/LDP/abs/html/internalvariables.html
Use `#!/usr/bin/env bash` instead of `#!/bin/bash`.
## Get the location to the `bash` binary
- The former searches the user's `PATH` to find the `bash` binary.
- The latter assumes it is always installed to `/bin/` which can cause issues.
```shell
"$BASH"
# Right:
#!/usr/bin/env bash
# Wrong:
#!/bin/bash
```
## Get the version of the current running `bash` process
## Command Substitution
Use `$()` instead of `` ` ` ``.
```shell
# As a string.
"$BASH_VERSION"
# Right.
var="$(command)"
# As an array.
"${BASH_VERSINFO[@]}"
# Wrong.
var=`command`
# $() can easily be nested whereas `` cannot.
var="$(command "$(command)")"
```
## Open the user's preferred text editor
## Function Declaration
Don't use the `function` keyword, it reduces compatibility with older versions of `bash`.
```shell
"$EDITOR" "$file"
# Right.
do_something() {
# ...
}
# NOTE: This variable may be empty, set a fallback value.
"${EDITOR:-vi}" "$file"
```
## Get the name of the current function
```shell
# Current function.
"${FUNCNAME[0]}"
# Parent function.
"${FUNCNAME[1]}"
# So on and so forth.
"${FUNCNAME[2]}"
"${FUNCNAME[3]}"
# All functions including parents.
"${FUNCNAME[@]}"
```
## Get the host-name of the system
```shell
"$HOSTNAME"
# NOTE: This variable may be empty.
# Optionally set a fallback to the hostname command.
"${HOSTNAME:-$(hostname)}"
```
## Get the architecture of the Operating System
```shell
"$HOSTTYPE"
```
## Get the name of the Operating System / Kernel
This can be used to add conditional support for different Operating
Systems without needing to call `uname`.
```shell
"$OSTYPE"
```
## Get the current working directory
This is an alternative to the `pwd` built-in.
```shell
"$PWD"
```
## Get the number of seconds the script has been running
```shell
"$SECONDS"
```
## Get a pseudorandom integer
Each time `$RANDOM` is used, a different integer between `0` and `32767` is returned. This variable should not be used for anything related to security (*this includes encryption keys etc*).
```shell
"$RANDOM"
# Wrong.
function do_something() {
# ...
}
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# Information about the terminal
# Internal Variables
## Get the terminal size in lines and columns (*from a script*)
**NOTE**: This list does not include every internal variable (*You can
help by adding a missing entry!*).
This is handy when writing scripts in pure bash and `stty`/`tput` can’t be
called.
For a complete list, see:
http://tldp.org/LDP/abs/html/internalvariables.html
**Example Function:**
```sh
get_term_size() {
# Usage: get_term_size
# (:;:) is a micro sleep to ensure the variables are
# exported immediately.
shopt -s checkwinsize; (:;:)
printf '%s\n' "$LINES $COLUMNS"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
## Get the location to the `bash` binary
```shell
# Output: LINES COLUMNS
$ get_term_size
15 55
"$BASH"
```
## Get the terminal size in pixels
**CAVEAT**: This does not work in some terminal emulators.
**Example Function:**
```sh
get_window_size() {
# Usage: get_window_size
printf '%b' "${TMUX:+\\ePtmux;\\e}\\e[14t${TMUX:+\\e\\\\}"
IFS=';t' read -d t -t 0.05 -sra term_size
printf '%s\n' "${term_size[1]}x${term_size[2]}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
## Get the version of the current running `bash` process
```shell
# Output: WIDTHxHEIGHT
$ get_window_size
1200x800
# As a string.
"$BASH_VERSION"
# Output (fail):
$ get_window_size
x
# As an array.
"${BASH_VERSINFO[@]}"
```
## Get the current cursor position
This is useful when creating a TUI in pure bash.
**Example Function:**
```sh
get_cursor_pos() {
# Usage: get_cursor_pos
IFS='[;' read -p $'\e[6n' -d R -rs _ y x _
printf '%s\n' "$x $y"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
## Open the user's preferred text editor
```shell
# Output: X Y
$ get_cursor_pos
1 8
"$EDITOR" "$file"
# NOTE: This variable may be empty, set a fallback value.
"${EDITOR:-vi}" "$file"
```
## Get the name of the current function
```shell
# Current function.
"${FUNCNAME[0]}"
# Parent function.
"${FUNCNAME[1]}"
# So on and so forth.
"${FUNCNAME[2]}"
"${FUNCNAME[3]}"
# All functions including parents.
"${FUNCNAME[@]}"
```
## Get the host-name of the system
```shell
"$HOSTNAME"
# NOTE: This variable may be empty.
# Optionally set a fallback to the hostname command.
"${HOSTNAME:-$(hostname)}"
```
## Get the architecture of the Operating System
```shell
"$HOSTTYPE"
```
## Get the name of the Operating System / Kernel
This can be used to add conditional support for different Operating
Systems without needing to call `uname`.
```shell
"$OSTYPE"
```
## Get the current working directory
This is an alternative to the `pwd` built-in.
```shell
"$PWD"
```
## Get the number of seconds the script has been running
```shell
"$SECONDS"
```
## Get a pseudorandom integer
Each time `$RANDOM` is used, a different integer between `0` and `32767` is returned. This variable should not be used for anything related to security (*this includes encryption keys etc*).
```shell
"$RANDOM"
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# Conversion
# Information about the terminal
## Convert a hex color to RGB
## Get the terminal size in lines and columns (*from a script*)
This is handy when writing scripts in pure bash and `stty`/`tput` can’t be
called.
**Example Function:**
```sh
hex_to_rgb() {
# Usage: hex_to_rgb "#FFFFFF"
((r=16#${1:1:2}))
((g=16#${1:3:2}))
((b=16#${1:5:6}))
get_term_size() {
# Usage: get_term_size
printf '%s\n' "$r $g $b"
# (:;:) is a micro sleep to ensure the variables are
# exported immediately.
shopt -s checkwinsize; (:;:)
printf '%s\n' "$LINES $COLUMNS"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ hex_to_rgb "#FFFFFF"
255 255 255
# Output: LINES COLUMNS
$ get_term_size
15 55
```
## Get the terminal size in pixels
## Convert an RGB color to hex
**CAVEAT**: This does not work in some terminal emulators.
**Example Function:**
```sh
rgb_to_hex() {
# Usage: rgb_to_hex "r" "g" "b"
printf '#%02x%02x%02x\n' "$1" "$2" "$3"
get_window_size() {
# Usage: get_window_size
printf '%b' "${TMUX:+\\ePtmux;\\e}\\e[14t${TMUX:+\\e\\\\}"
IFS=';t' read -d t -t 0.05 -sra term_size
printf '%s\n' "${term_size[1]}x${term_size[2]}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ rgb_to_hex "255" "255" "255"
#FFFFFF
# Output: WIDTHxHEIGHT
$ get_window_size
1200x800
# Output (fail):
$ get_window_size
x
```
## Get the current cursor position
# Code Golf
This is useful when creating a TUI in pure bash.
## Shorter `for` loop syntax
**Example Function:**
```shell
# Tiny C Style.
for((;i++<10;)){ echo "$i";}
# Undocumented method.
for i in {1..10};{ echo "$i";}
# Expansion.
for i in {1..10}; do echo "$i"; done
# C Style.
for((i=0;i<=10;i++)); do echo "$i"; done
```
## Shorter infinite loops
```shell
# Normal method
while :; do echo hi; done
# Shorter
for((;;)){ echo hi;}
```
## Shorter function declaration
```shell
# Normal method
f(){ echo hi;}
# Using a subshell
f()(echo hi)
# Using arithmetic
# You can use this to assign integer values.
# Example: f a=1
# f a++
f()(($1))
# Using tests, loops etc.
# NOTE: You can also use ‘while’, ‘until’, ‘case’, ‘(())’, ‘[[]]’.
f()if true; then echo "$1"; fi
f()for i in "$@"; do echo "$i"; done
```
## Shorter `if` syntax
```shell
# One line
# Note: The 3rd statement may run when the 1st is true
[[ "$var" == hello ]] && echo hi || echo bye
[[ "$var" == hello ]] && { echo hi; echo there; } || echo bye
# Multi line (no else, single statement)
# Note: The exit status may not be the same as with an if statement
[[ "$var" == hello ]] && \
echo hi
# Multi line (no else)
[[ "$var" == hello ]] && {
echo hi
# ...
```sh
get_cursor_pos() {
# Usage: get_cursor_pos
IFS='[;' read -p $'\e[6n' -d R -rs _ y x _
printf '%s\n' "$x $y"
}
```
## Simpler `case` statement to set variable
We can use the `:` builtin to avoid repeating `variable=` in a case
statement. The `$_` variable stores the last argument of the last
successful command. `:` always succeeds so we can abuse it to store the
variable value.
**Example Usage:**
```shell
# Modified snippet from Neofetch.
case "$OSTYPE" in
"darwin"*)
: "MacOS"
;;
"linux"*)
: "Linux"
;;
*"bsd"* | "dragonfly" | "bitrig")
: "BSD"
;;
"cygwin" | "msys" | "win32")
: "Windows"
;;
*)
printf '%s\n' "Unknown OS detected, aborting..." >&2
exit 1
;;
esac
# Finally, set the variable.
os="$_"
# Output: X Y
$ get_cursor_pos
1 8
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# Other
# Conversion
## Use `read` as an alternative to the `sleep` command
I was surprised to find out `sleep` is an external command and isn't a
built-in.
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
## Convert a hex color to RGB
**Example Function:**
```sh
read_sleep() {
# Usage: sleep 1
# sleep 0.2
read -rst "${1:-1}" -N 999
hex_to_rgb() {
# Usage: hex_to_rgb "#FFFFFF"
((r=16#${1:1:2}))
((g=16#${1:3:2}))
((b=16#${1:5:6}))
printf '%s\n' "$r $g $b"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
read_sleep 1
read_sleep 0.1
read_sleep 30
$ hex_to_rgb "#FFFFFF"
255 255 255
```
## Check if a program is in the user's PATH
```shell
# There are 3 ways to do this and you can use either of
# these in the same way.
type -p executable_name &>/dev/null
hash executable_name &>/dev/null
command -v executable_name &>/dev/null
# As a test.
if type -p executable_name &>/dev/null; then
# Program is in PATH.
fi
# Inverse.
if ! type -p executable_name &>/dev/null; then
# Program is not in PATH.
fi
# Example (Exit early if program isn't installed).
if ! type -p convert &>/dev/null; then
printf '%s\n' "error: convert isn't installed, exiting..."
exit 1
fi
```
## Get the current date using `strftime`
Bash’s `printf` has a built-in method of getting the date which we can use
in place of the `date` command in a lot of cases.
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
## Convert an RGB color to hex
**Example Function:**
```sh
date() {
# Usage: date "format"
# See: 'man strftime' for format.
printf "%($1)T\\n" "-1"
rgb_to_hex() {
# Usage: rgb_to_hex "r" "g" "b"
printf '#%02x%02x%02x\n' "$1" "$2" "$3"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
# Using above function.
$ date "%a %d %b - %l:%M %p"
Fri 15 Jun - 10:00 AM
# Using printf directly.
$ printf '%(%a %d %b - %l:%M %p)T\n' "-1"
Fri 15 Jun - 10:00 AM
# Assigning a variable using printf.
$ printf -v date '%(%a %d %b - %l:%M %p)T\n' '-1'
$ printf '%s\n' "$date"
Fri 15 Jun - 10:00 AM
$ rgb_to_hex "255" "255" "255"
#FFFFFF
```
## Generate a UUID V4
**Example Function:**
# Code Golf
```sh
uuid() {
# Usage: uuid
C="89ab"
## Shorter `for` loop syntax
for ((N=0;N<16;++N)); do
B="$((RANDOM%256))"
```shell
# Tiny C Style.
for((;i++<10;)){ echo "$i";}
case "$N" in
6) printf '4%x' "$((B%16))" ;;
8) printf '%c%x' "${C:$RANDOM%${#C}:1}" "$((B%16))" ;;
# Undocumented method.
for i in {1..10};{ echo "$i";}
3|5|7|9)
printf '%02x-' "$B"
;;
# Expansion.
for i in {1..10}; do echo "$i"; done
*)
printf '%02x' "$B"
;;
esac
done
# C Style.
for((i=0;i<=10;i++)); do echo "$i"; done
```
printf '\n'
## Shorter infinite loops
```shell
# Normal method
while :; do echo hi; done
# Shorter
for((;;)){ echo hi;}
```
## Shorter function declaration
```shell
# Normal method
f(){ echo hi;}
# Using a subshell
f()(echo hi)
# Using arithmetic
# You can use this to assign integer values.
# Example: f a=1
# f a++
f()(($1))
# Using tests, loops etc.
# NOTE: You can also use ‘while’, ‘until’, ‘case’, ‘(())’, ‘[[]]’.
f()if true; then echo "$1"; fi
f()for i in "$@"; do echo "$i"; done
```
## Shorter `if` syntax
```shell
# One line
# Note: The 3rd statement may run when the 1st is true
[[ "$var" == hello ]] && echo hi || echo bye
[[ "$var" == hello ]] && { echo hi; echo there; } || echo bye
# Multi line (no else, single statement)
# Note: The exit status may not be the same as with an if statement
[[ "$var" == hello ]] && \
echo hi
# Multi line (no else)
[[ "$var" == hello ]] && {
echo hi
# ...
}
```
**Example Usage:**
## Simpler `case` statement to set variable
We can use the `:` builtin to avoid repeating `variable=` in a case
statement. The `$_` variable stores the last argument of the last
successful command. `:` always succeeds so we can abuse it to store the
variable value.
```shell
$ uuid
d5b6c731-1310-4c24-9fe3-55d556d44374
```
# Modified snippet from Neofetch.
case "$OSTYPE" in
"darwin"*)
: "MacOS"
;;
## Progress bars
"linux"*)
: "Linux"
;;
This is a simple way of drawing progress bars without needing a for loop
in the function itself.
*"bsd"* | "dragonfly" | "bitrig")
: "BSD"
;;
**Example Function:**
"cygwin" | "msys" | "win32")
: "Windows"
;;
```sh
bar() {
# Usage: bar 1 10
# ^----- Elapsed Percentage (0-100).
# ^-- Total length in chars.
((elapsed=$1*$2/100))
*)
printf '%s\n' "Unknown OS detected, aborting..." >&2
exit 1
;;
esac
# Create the bar with spaces.
printf -v prog "%${elapsed}s"
printf -v total "%$(($2-elapsed))s"
printf '%s\r' "[${prog// /-}${total}]"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
for ((i=0;i<=100;i++)); do
# Pure bash micro sleeps (for the example).
(:;:) && (:;:) && (:;:) && (:;:) && (:;:)
# Print the bar.
bar "$i" "10"
done
printf '\n'
```
## Get the list of functions from your script
```sh
get_functions() {
# Usage: get_functions
IFS=$'\n' read -d "" -ra functions < <(declare -F)
printf '%s\n' "${functions[@]//declare -f }"
}
```
## Bypass shell aliases
```shell
# alias
ls
# command
# shellcheck disable=SC1001
\ls
```
## Bypass shell functions
```shell
# function
ls
# command
command ls
# Finally, set the variable.
os="$_"
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# Other
## Use `read` as an alternative to the `sleep` command
I was surprised to find out `sleep` is an external command and isn't a
built-in.
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
**Example Function:**
```sh
read_sleep() {
# Usage: sleep 1
# sleep 0.2
read -rst "${1:-1}" -N 999
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
read_sleep 1
read_sleep 0.1
read_sleep 30
```
## Check if a program is in the user's PATH
```shell
# There are 3 ways to do this and you can use either of
# these in the same way.
type -p executable_name &>/dev/null
hash executable_name &>/dev/null
command -v executable_name &>/dev/null
# As a test.
if type -p executable_name &>/dev/null; then
# Program is in PATH.
fi
# Inverse.
if ! type -p executable_name &>/dev/null; then
# Program is not in PATH.
fi
# Example (Exit early if program isn't installed).
if ! type -p convert &>/dev/null; then
printf '%s\n' "error: convert isn't installed, exiting..."
exit 1
fi
```
## Get the current date using `strftime`
Bash’s `printf` has a built-in method of getting the date which we can use
in place of the `date` command in a lot of cases.
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
**Example Function:**
```sh
date() {
# Usage: date "format"
# See: 'man strftime' for format.
printf "%($1)T\\n" "-1"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
# Using above function.
$ date "%a %d %b - %l:%M %p"
Fri 15 Jun - 10:00 AM
# Using printf directly.
$ printf '%(%a %d %b - %l:%M %p)T\n' "-1"
Fri 15 Jun - 10:00 AM
# Assigning a variable using printf.
$ printf -v date '%(%a %d %b - %l:%M %p)T\n' '-1'
$ printf '%s\n' "$date"
Fri 15 Jun - 10:00 AM
```
## Generate a UUID V4
**Example Function:**
```sh
uuid() {
# Usage: uuid
C="89ab"
for ((N=0;N<16;++N)); do
B="$((RANDOM%256))"
case "$N" in
6) printf '4%x' "$((B%16))" ;;
8) printf '%c%x' "${C:$RANDOM%${#C}:1}" "$((B%16))" ;;
3|5|7|9)
printf '%02x-' "$B"
;;
*)
printf '%02x' "$B"
;;
esac
done
printf '\n'
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ uuid
d5b6c731-1310-4c24-9fe3-55d556d44374
```
## Progress bars
This is a simple way of drawing progress bars without needing a for loop
in the function itself.
**Example Function:**
```sh
bar() {
# Usage: bar 1 10
# ^----- Elapsed Percentage (0-100).
# ^-- Total length in chars.
((elapsed=$1*$2/100))
# Create the bar with spaces.
printf -v prog "%${elapsed}s"
printf -v total "%$(($2-elapsed))s"
printf '%s\r' "[${prog// /-}${total}]"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
for ((i=0;i<=100;i++)); do
# Pure bash micro sleeps (for the example).
(:;:) && (:;:) && (:;:) && (:;:) && (:;:)
# Print the bar.
bar "$i" "10"
done
printf '\n'
```
## Get the list of functions from your script
```sh
get_functions() {
# Usage: get_functions
IFS=$'\n' read -d "" -ra functions < <(declare -F)
printf '%s\n' "${functions[@]//declare -f }"
}
```
## Bypass shell aliases
```shell
# alias
ls
# command
# shellcheck disable=SC1001
\ls
```
## Bypass shell functions
```shell
# function
ls
# command
command ls
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# Loops
# Arrays
## Loop over a range of numbers
## Reverse an array
Don't use `seq`.
Enabling `extdebug` allows access to the `BASH_ARGV` array which stores
the current function’s arguments in reverse.
```shell
# Loop from 0-100 (no variable support).
for i in {0..100}; do
printf '%s\n' "$i"
done
**Example Function:**
```sh
reverse_array() {
# Usage: reverse_array "array"
shopt -s extdebug
f()(printf '%s\n' "${BASH_ARGV[@]}"); f "$@"
shopt -u extdebug
}
```
## Loop over a variable range of numbers
Don't use `seq`.
**Example Usage:**
```shell
# Loop from 0-VAR.
VAR=50
for ((i=0;i<=VAR;i++)); do
printf '%s\n' "$i"
done
$ reverse_array 1 2 3 4 5
5
4
3
2
1
$ arr=(red blue green)
$ reverse_array "${arr[@]}"
green
blue
red
```
## Loop over an array
## Remove duplicate array elements
```shell
arr=(apples oranges tomatoes)
Create a temporary associative array. When setting associative array
values and a duplicate assignment occurs, bash overwrites the key. This
allows us to effectively remove array duplicates.
# Just elements.
for element in "${arr[@]}"; do
printf '%s\n' "$element"
done
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
**Example Function:**
```sh
remove_array_dups() {
# Usage: remove_array_dups "array"
declare -A tmp_array
for i in "$@"; do
[[ "$i" ]] && IFS=" " tmp_array["${i:- }"]=1
done
printf '%s\n' "${!tmp_array[@]}"
}
```
## Loop over an array with an index
**Example Usage:**
```shell
arr=(apples oranges tomatoes)
$ remove_array_dups 1 1 2 2 3 3 3 3 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 5 5 5 5 5
1
2
3
4
5
# Elements and index.
for i in "${!arr[@]}"; do
printf '%s\n' "${arr[$i]}"
done
# Alternative method.
for ((i=0;i<${#arr[@]};i++)); do
printf '%s\n' "${arr[$i]}"
done
$ arr=(red red green blue blue)
$ remove_array_dups "${arr[@]}"
red
green
blue
```
## Loop over the contents of a file
## Random array element
```shell
while read -r line; do
printf '%s\n' "$line"
done < "file"
**Example Function:**
```sh
random_array_element() {
# Usage: random_array_element "array"
local arr=("$@")
printf '%s\n' "${arr[RANDOM % $#]}"
}
```
## Loop over files and directories
Don’t use `ls`.
**Example Usage:**
```shell
# Greedy example.
for file in *; do
printf '%s\n' "$file"
done
$ array=(red green blue yellow brown)
$ random_array_element "${array[@]}"
yellow
# PNG files in dir.
for file in ~/Pictures/*.png; do
printf '%s\n' "$file"
done
# You can also just pass multiple arguments.
$ random_array_element 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
3
```
# Iterate over directories.
for dir in ~/Downloads/*/; do
printf '%s\n' "$dir"
done
## Cycle through an array
# Brace Expansion.
for file in /path/to/parentdir/{file1,file2,subdir/file3}; do
printf '%s\n' "$file"
done
Each time the `printf` is called, the next array element is printed. When
the print hits the last array element it starts from the first element
again.
# Iterate recursively.
shopt -s globstar
for file in ~/Pictures/**/*; do
printf '%s\n' "$file"
done
shopt -u globstar
```sh
arr=(a b c d)
cycle() {
printf '%s ' "${arr[${i:=0}]}"
((i=i>=${#arr[@]}-1?0:++i))
}
```
## Toggle between two values
This works the same as above, this is just a different use case.
```sh
arr=(true false)
cycle() {
printf '%s ' "${arr[${i:=0}]}"
((i=i>=${#arr[@]}-1?0:++i))
}
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# File handling
# Loops
**CAVEAT:** `bash` doesn't handle binary data properly in versions `< 4.4`.
## Loop over a range of numbers
## Read a file to a string
Alternative to the `cat` command.
Don't use `seq`.
```shell
file_data="$(<"file")"
# Loop from 0-100 (no variable support).
for i in {0..100}; do
printf '%s\n' "$i"
done
```
## Read a file to an array (*by line*)
## Loop over a variable range of numbers
Alternative to the `cat` command.
Don't use `seq`.
```shell
# Bash <4
IFS=$'\n' read -d "" -ra file_data < "file"
# Bash 4+
mapfile -t file_data < "file"
# Loop from 0-VAR.
VAR=50
for ((i=0;i<=VAR;i++)); do
printf '%s\n' "$i"
done
```
## Get the first N lines of a file
Alternative to the `head` command.
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
**Example Function:**
```sh
head() {
# Usage: head "n" "file"
mapfile -tn "$1" line < "$2"
printf '%s\n' "${line[@]}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
## Loop over an array
```shell
$ head 2 ~/.bashrc
# Prompt
PS1='➜ '
arr=(apples oranges tomatoes)
$ head 1 ~/.bashrc
# Prompt
# Just elements.
for element in "${arr[@]}"; do
printf '%s\n' "$element"
done
```
## Get the last N lines of a file
Alternative to the `tail` command.
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
**Example Function:**
```sh
tail() {
# Usage: tail "n" "file"
mapfile -tn 0 line < "$2"
printf '%s\n' "${line[@]: -$1}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
## Loop over an array with an index
```shell
$ tail 2 ~/.bashrc
# Enable tmux.
# [[ -z "$TMUX" ]] && exec tmux
arr=(apples oranges tomatoes)
$ tail 1 ~/.bashrc
# [[ -z "$TMUX" ]] && exec tmux
# Elements and index.
for i in "${!arr[@]}"; do
printf '%s\n' "${arr[$i]}"
done
# Alternative method.
for ((i=0;i<${#arr[@]};i++)); do
printf '%s\n' "${arr[$i]}"
done
```
## Get the number of lines in a file
Alternative to `wc -l`.
**Example Function (bash 4):**
```sh
lines() {
# Usage: lines "file"
mapfile -tn 0 lines < "$1"
printf '%s\n' "${#lines[@]}"
}
```
**Example Function (bash 3):**
This method uses less memory than the `mapfile` method and it's more
compatible but it's slower for bigger files.
```sh
lines_loop() {
# Usage: lines_loop "file"
count=0
while IFS= read -r _; do
((count++))
done < "$1"
printf '%s\n' "$count"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
## Loop over the contents of a file
```shell
$ lines ~/.bashrc
48
$ lines_loop ~/.bashrc
48
while read -r line; do
printf '%s\n' "$line"
done < "file"
```
## Count files or directories in directory
## Loop over files and directories
This works by passing the output of the glob as function arguments. We
then count the arguments and print the number.
**Example Function:**
```sh
count() {
# Usage: count /path/to/dir/*
# count /path/to/dir/*/
printf '%s\n' "$#"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
Don’t use `ls`.
```shell
# Count all files in dir.
$ count ~/Downloads/*
232
# Greedy example.
for file in *; do
printf '%s\n' "$file"
done
# Count all dirs in dir.
$ count ~/Downloads/*/
45
# PNG files in dir.
for file in ~/Pictures/*.png; do
printf '%s\n' "$file"
done
# Count all jpg files in dir.
$ count ~/Pictures/*.jpg
64
```
# Iterate over directories.
for dir in ~/Downloads/*/; do
printf '%s\n' "$dir"
done
## Create an empty file
# Brace Expansion.
for file in /path/to/parentdir/{file1,file2,subdir/file3}; do
printf '%s\n' "$file"
done
Alternative to `touch`.
```shell
# Shortest.
:> file
# Longer alternatives:
echo -n > file
printf '' > file
```
## Extract lines between two markers
**Example Function:**
```sh
extract() {
# Usage: extract file "opening marker" "closing marker"
while IFS=$'\n' read -r line; do
[[ "$extract" && "$line" != "$3" ]] && \
printf '%s\n' "$line"
[[ "$line" == "$2" ]] && extract=1
[[ "$line" == "$3" ]] && extract=
done < "$1"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
# Extract code blocks from MarkDown file.
$ extract ~/projects/pure-bash/README.md '```sh' '```'
# Output here...
# Iterate recursively.
shopt -s globstar
for file in ~/Pictures/**/*; do
printf '%s\n' "$file"
done
shopt -u globstar
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# File Paths
# File handling
## Get the directory name of a file path
**CAVEAT:** `bash` doesn't handle binary data properly in versions `< 4.4`.
Alternative to the `dirname` command.
## Read a file to a string
Alternative to the `cat` command.
```shell
file_data="$(<"file")"
```
## Read a file to an array (*by line*)
Alternative to the `cat` command.
```shell
# Bash <4
IFS=$'\n' read -d "" -ra file_data < "file"
# Bash 4+
mapfile -t file_data < "file"
```
## Get the first N lines of a file
Alternative to the `head` command.
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
**Example Function:**
```sh
dirname() {
# Usage: dirname "path"
printf '%s\n' "${1%/*}/"
head() {
# Usage: head "n" "file"
mapfile -tn "$1" line < "$2"
printf '%s\n' "${line[@]}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ dirname ~/Pictures/Wallpapers/1.jpg
/home/black/Pictures/Wallpapers/
$ head 2 ~/.bashrc
# Prompt
PS1='➜ '
$ dirname ~/Pictures/Downloads/
/home/black/Pictures/
$ head 1 ~/.bashrc
# Prompt
```
## Get the base-name of a file path
## Get the last N lines of a file
Alternative to the `basename` command.
Alternative to the `tail` command.
**CAVEAT:** Requires `bash` 4+
**Example Function:**
```sh
basename() {
# Usage: basename "path"
: "${1%/}"
printf '%s\n' "${_##*/}"
tail() {
# Usage: tail "n" "file"
mapfile -tn 0 line < "$2"
printf '%s\n' "${line[@]: -$1}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ basename ~/Pictures/Wallpapers/1.jpg
1.jpg
$ tail 2 ~/.bashrc
# Enable tmux.
# [[ -z "$TMUX" ]] && exec tmux
$ basename ~/Pictures/Downloads/
Downloads
$ tail 1 ~/.bashrc
# [[ -z "$TMUX" ]] && exec tmux
```
## Get the number of lines in a file
Alternative to `wc -l`.
**Example Function (bash 4):**
```sh
lines() {
# Usage: lines "file"
mapfile -tn 0 lines < "$1"
printf '%s\n' "${#lines[@]}"
}
```
**Example Function (bash 3):**
This method uses less memory than the `mapfile` method and it's more
compatible but it's slower for bigger files.
```sh
lines_loop() {
# Usage: lines_loop "file"
count=0
while IFS= read -r _; do
((count++))
done < "$1"
printf '%s\n' "$count"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ lines ~/.bashrc
48
$ lines_loop ~/.bashrc
48
```
## Count files or directories in directory
This works by passing the output of the glob as function arguments. We
then count the arguments and print the number.
**Example Function:**
```sh
count() {
# Usage: count /path/to/dir/*
# count /path/to/dir/*/
printf '%s\n' "$#"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
# Count all files in dir.
$ count ~/Downloads/*
232
# Count all dirs in dir.
$ count ~/Downloads/*/
45
# Count all jpg files in dir.
$ count ~/Pictures/*.jpg
64
```
## Create an empty file
Alternative to `touch`.
```shell
# Shortest.
:> file
# Longer alternatives:
echo -n > file
printf '' > file
```
## Extract lines between two markers
**Example Function:**
```sh
extract() {
# Usage: extract file "opening marker" "closing marker"
while IFS=$'\n' read -r line; do
[[ "$extract" && "$line" != "$3" ]] && \
printf '%s\n' "$line"
[[ "$line" == "$2" ]] && extract=1
[[ "$line" == "$3" ]] && extract=
done < "$1"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
# Extract code blocks from MarkDown file.
$ extract ~/projects/pure-bash/README.md '```sh' '```'
# Output here...
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# Variables
# File Paths
## Assign and access a variable using a variable
## Get the directory name of a file path
Alternative to the `dirname` command.
**Example Function:**
```sh
dirname() {
# Usage: dirname "path"
printf '%s\n' "${1%/*}/"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
hello_world="test"
$ dirname ~/Pictures/Wallpapers/1.jpg
/home/black/Pictures/Wallpapers/
# Create the variable name.
var1="world"
var2="hello_${var1}"
$ dirname ~/Pictures/Downloads/
/home/black/Pictures/
```
# Print the value of the variable name stored in 'hello_$var1'.
printf '%s\n' "${!var2}"
## Get the base-name of a file path
Alternative to the `basename` command.
**Example Function:**
```sh
basename() {
# Usage: basename "path"
: "${1%/}"
printf '%s\n' "${_##*/}"
}
```
**Example Usage:**
```shell
$ basename ~/Pictures/Wallpapers/1.jpg
1.jpg
$ basename ~/Pictures/Downloads/
Downloads
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# Escape Sequences
# Variables
Contrary to popular belief, there's no issue in using raw escape sequences. Using `tput` just abstracts the same ANSI escape sequences. What's worse is that `tput` isn't actually portable, there are a number of different `tput` variants on different Operating Systems each with different commands (*try and run `tput setaf 3` on a FreeBSD system*). The easiest solution ends up being raw ANSI sequences.
## Assign and access a variable using a variable
## Text Colors
```shell
hello_world="test"
**NOTE:** Sequences requiring RGB values only work in True-Color Terminal Emulators.
| Sequence | What does it do? | Value |
| -------- | ---------------- | ----- |
| `\e[38;5;<NUM>m` | Set text foreground color. | `0-255`
| `\e[48;5;<NUM>m` | Set text background color. | `0-255`
| `\e[38;2;<R>;<G>;<B>m` | Set text foreground color to RGB color. | `R`, `G`, `B`
| `\e[48;2;<R>;<G>;<B>m` | Set text background color to RGB color. | `R`, `G`, `B`
## Text Attributes
| Sequence | What does it do? |
| -------- | ---------------- |
| `\e[m` | Reset text formatting and colors.
| `\e[1m` | Bold text. |
| `\e[2m` | Faint text. |
| `\e[3m` | Italic text. |
| `\e[4m` | Underline text. |
| `\e[5m` | Slow blink. |
| `\e[7m` | Swap foreground and background colors. |
## Cursor Movement
| Sequence | What does it do? | Value |
| -------- | ---------------- | ----- |
| `\e[<LINE>;<COLUMN>H` | Move cursor to absolute position. | `line`, `column`
| `\e[H` | Move cursor to home position (`0,0`). |
| `\e[<NUM>A` | Move cursor up N lines. | `num`
| `\e[<NUM>B` | Move cursor down N lines. | `num`
| `\e[<NUM>C` | Move cursor right N columns. | `num`
| `\e[<NUM>D` | Move cursor left N columns. | `num`
| `\e[s` | Save cursor position. |
| `\e[u` | Restore cursor position. |
## Erasing Text
| Sequence | What does it do? |
| -------- | ---------------- |
| `\e[K` | Erase from cursor position to end of line.
| `\e[1K` | Erase from cursor position to start of line.
| `\e[2K` | Erase the entire current line.
| `\e[J` | Erase from the current line to the bottom of the screen.
| `\e[1J` | Erase from the current line to the top of the screen.
| `\e[2J` | Clear the screen.
| `\e[2J\e[H` | Clear the screen and move cursor to `0,0`.
# Create the variable name.
var1="world"
var2="hello_${var1}"
# Print the value of the variable name stored in 'hello_$var1'.
printf '%s\n' "${!var2}"
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# Parameter Expansion
# Escape Sequences
## Indirection
Contrary to popular belief, there's no issue in using raw escape sequences. Using `tput` just abstracts the same ANSI escape sequences. What's worse is that `tput` isn't actually portable, there are a number of different `tput` variants on different Operating Systems each with different commands (*try and run `tput setaf 3` on a FreeBSD system*). The easiest solution ends up being raw ANSI sequences.
| Parameter | What does it do? |
| --------- | ---------------- |
| `${!VAR}` | Access a variable based on the value of `VAR`. See: [link](#assign-and-access-a-variable-using-a-variable)
| `${!VAR*}` | Expand to `IFS` separated list of variable names starting with `VAR`. |
| `${!VAR@}` | Expand to `IFS` separated list of variable names starting with `VAR`. |
## Text Colors
**NOTE:** Sequences requiring RGB values only work in True-Color Terminal Emulators.
| Sequence | What does it do? | Value |
| -------- | ---------------- | ----- |
| `\e[38;5;<NUM>m` | Set text foreground color. | `0-255`
| `\e[48;5;<NUM>m` | Set text background color. | `0-255`
| `\e[38;2;<R>;<G>;<B>m` | Set text foreground color to RGB color. | `R`, `G`, `B`
| `\e[48;2;<R>;<G>;<B>m` | Set text background color to RGB color. | `R`, `G`, `B`
## Text Attributes
| Sequence | What does it do? |
| -------- | ---------------- |
| `\e[m` | Reset text formatting and colors.
| `\e[1m` | Bold text. |
| `\e[2m` | Faint text. |
| `\e[3m` | Italic text. |
| `\e[4m` | Underline text. |
| `\e[5m` | Slow blink. |
| `\e[7m` | Swap foreground and background colors. |
## Replacement
## Cursor Movement
| Parameter | What does it do? |
| --------- | ---------------- |
| `${VAR#PATTERN}` | Remove shortest match of pattern from start of string. |
| `${VAR##PATTERN}` | Remove longest match of pattern from start of string. |
| `${VAR%PATTERN}` | Remove shortest match of pattern from end of string. |
| `${VAR%%PATTERN}` | Remove longest match of pattern from end of string. |
| `${VAR/PATTERN/REPLACE}` | Replace first match with string.
| `${VAR//PATTERN/REPLACE}` | Replace all matches with string.
| `${VAR/PATTERN}` | Remove first match.
| `${VAR//PATTERN}` | Remove all matches.
## Length
| Parameter | What does it do? |
| --------- | ---------------- |
| `${#VAR}` | Length of var in characters.
| `${#ARR[@]}` | Length of array in elements.
## Expansion
| Parameter | What does it do? |
| --------- | ---------------- |
| `${VAR:OFFSET}` | Remove first `N` chars from variable.
| `${VAR:OFFSET:LENGTH}` | Get substring from `N` character to `N` character. <br> (`${VAR:10:10}`: Get sub-string from char `10` to char `20`)
| `${VAR:: OFFSET}` | Get first `N` chars from variable.
| `${VAR:: -OFFSET}` | Remove last `N` chars from variable.
| `${VAR: -OFFSET}` | Get last `N` chars from variable.
| `${VAR:OFFSET:-OFFSET}` | Cut first `N` chars and last `N` chars. | `bash 4.2+` |
## Case Modification
| Parameter | What does it do? | CAVEAT |
| --------- | ---------------- | ------ |
| `${VAR^}` | Uppercase first character. | `bash 4+` |
| `${VAR^^}` | Uppercase all characters. | `bash 4+` |
| `${VAR,}` | Lowercase first character. | `bash 4+` |
| `${VAR,,}` | Lowercase all characters. | `bash 4+` |
| Sequence | What does it do? | Value |
| -------- | ---------------- | ----- |
| `\e[<LINE>;<COLUMN>H` | Move cursor to absolute position. | `line`, `column`
| `\e[H` | Move cursor to home position (`0,0`). |
| `\e[<NUM>A` | Move cursor up N lines. | `num`
| `\e[<NUM>B` | Move cursor down N lines. | `num`
| `\e[<NUM>C` | Move cursor right N columns. | `num`
| `\e[<NUM>D` | Move cursor left N columns. | `num`
| `\e[s` | Save cursor position. |
| `\e[u` | Restore cursor position. |
## Default Value
## Erasing Text
| Parameter | What does it do? |
| --------- | ---------------- |
| `${VAR:-STRING}` | If `VAR` is empty or unset, use `STRING` as it's value.
| `${VAR-STRING}` | If `VAR` is unset, use `STRING` as it's value.
| `${VAR:=STRING}` | If `VAR` is empty or unset, set the value of `VAR` to `STRING`.
| `${VAR=STRING}` | If `VAR` is unset, set the value of `VAR` to `STRING`.
| `${VAR:+STRING}` | If `VAR` isn't empty, use `STRING` as it's value.
| `${VAR+STRING}` | If `VAR` is set, use `STRING` as it's value.
| `${VAR:?STRING}` | Display an error if empty or unset.
| `${VAR?STRING}` | Display an error if unset.
| Sequence | What does it do? |
| -------- | ---------------- |
| `\e[K` | Erase from cursor position to end of line.
| `\e[1K` | Erase from cursor position to start of line.
| `\e[2K` | Erase the entire current line.
| `\e[J` | Erase from the current line to the bottom of the screen.
| `\e[1J` | Erase from the current line to the top of the screen.
| `\e[2J` | Clear the screen.
| `\e[2J\e[H` | Clear the screen and move cursor to `0,0`.
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# Brace Expansion
# Parameter Expansion
## Ranges
## Indirection
```shell
# Syntax: {<START>..<END>}
| Parameter | What does it do? |
| --------- | ---------------- |
| `${!VAR}` | Access a variable based on the value of `VAR`. See: [link](#assign-and-access-a-variable-using-a-variable)
| `${!VAR*}` | Expand to `IFS` separated list of variable names starting with `VAR`. |
| `${!VAR@}` | Expand to `IFS` separated list of variable names starting with `VAR`. |
# Print numbers 1-100.
echo {1..100}
# Print range of floats.
echo 1.{1..9}
## Replacement
# Print chars a-z.
echo {a..z}
echo {A..Z}
| Parameter | What does it do? |
| --------- | ---------------- |
| `${VAR#PATTERN}` | Remove shortest match of pattern from start of string. |
| `${VAR##PATTERN}` | Remove longest match of pattern from start of string. |
| `${VAR%PATTERN}` | Remove shortest match of pattern from end of string. |
| `${VAR%%PATTERN}` | Remove longest match of pattern from end of string. |
| `${VAR/PATTERN/REPLACE}` | Replace first match with string.
| `${VAR//PATTERN/REPLACE}` | Replace all matches with string.
| `${VAR/PATTERN}` | Remove first match.
| `${VAR//PATTERN}` | Remove all matches.
# Nesting.
echo {A..Z}{0..9}
## Length
# Print zero-padded numbers.
# CAVEAT: bash 4+
echo {01..100}
| Parameter | What does it do? |
| --------- | ---------------- |
| `${#VAR}` | Length of var in characters.
| `${#ARR[@]}` | Length of array in elements.
# Change increment amount.
# Syntax: {<START>..<END>..<INCREMENT>}
# CAVEAT: bash 4+
echo {1..10..2} # Increment by 2.
```
## Expansion
## String Lists
| Parameter | What does it do? |
| --------- | ---------------- |
| `${VAR:OFFSET}` | Remove first `N` chars from variable.
| `${VAR:OFFSET:LENGTH}` | Get substring from `N` character to `N` character. <br> (`${VAR:10:10}`: Get sub-string from char `10` to char `20`)
| `${VAR:: OFFSET}` | Get first `N` chars from variable.
| `${VAR:: -OFFSET}` | Remove last `N` chars from variable.
| `${VAR: -OFFSET}` | Get last `N` chars from variable.
| `${VAR:OFFSET:-OFFSET}` | Cut first `N` chars and last `N` chars. | `bash 4.2+` |
```shell
echo {apples,oranges,pears,grapes}
## Case Modification
| Parameter | What does it do? | CAVEAT |
| --------- | ---------------- | ------ |
| `${VAR^}` | Uppercase first character. | `bash 4+` |
| `${VAR^^}` | Uppercase all characters. | `bash 4+` |
| `${VAR,}` | Lowercase first character. | `bash 4+` |
| `${VAR,,}` | Lowercase all characters. | `bash 4+` |
## Default Value
| Parameter | What does it do? |
| --------- | ---------------- |
| `${VAR:-STRING}` | If `VAR` is empty or unset, use `STRING` as it's value.
| `${VAR-STRING}` | If `VAR` is unset, use `STRING` as it's value.
| `${VAR:=STRING}` | If `VAR` is empty or unset, set the value of `VAR` to `STRING`.
| `${VAR=STRING}` | If `VAR` is unset, set the value of `VAR` to `STRING`.
| `${VAR:+STRING}` | If `VAR` isn't empty, use `STRING` as it's value.
| `${VAR+STRING}` | If `VAR` is set, use `STRING` as it's value.
| `${VAR:?STRING}` | Display an error if empty or unset.
| `${VAR?STRING}` | Display an error if unset.
# Example Usage:
# Remove dirs Movies, Music and ISOS from ~/Downloads/.
rm -rf ~/Downloads/{Movies,Music,ISOS}
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->

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# Arithmetic
# Brace Expansion
## Simpler syntax to set variables
## Ranges
```shell
# Simple math
((var=1+2))
# Syntax: {<START>..<END>}
# Decrement/Increment variable
((var++))
((var--))
((var+=1))
((var-=1))
# Print numbers 1-100.
echo {1..100}
# Using variables
((var=var2*arr[2]))
# Print range of floats.
echo 1.{1..9}
# Print chars a-z.
echo {a..z}
echo {A..Z}
# Nesting.
echo {A..Z}{0..9}
# Print zero-padded numbers.
# CAVEAT: bash 4+
echo {01..100}
# Change increment amount.
# Syntax: {<START>..<END>..<INCREMENT>}
# CAVEAT: bash 4+
echo {1..10..2} # Increment by 2.
```
## Ternary tests
## String Lists
```shell
# Set the value of var to var2 if var2 is greater than var.
# var: variable to set.
# var2>var: Condition to test.
# ?var2: If the test succeeds.
# :var: If the test fails.
((var=var2>var?var2:var))
echo {apples,oranges,pears,grapes}
# Example Usage:
# Remove dirs Movies, Music and ISOS from ~/Downloads/.
rm -rf ~/Downloads/{Movies,Music,ISOS}
```
<!-- CHAPTER END -->